Studying Schaeffer in the field of Humanities Enriches our Understanding of Consumer Behavior

Religion is a study in communication, but more than that, it is a study in human behavior. This article is an analysis by one of the most powerful minds of 20th century Christian apologetics. Dr. Schaeffer presents a clear justification for the Christian faith and explains the demise of its nemesis during the past few centuries, Rationalism. He is considered a founder of the Christian right (see Wikipedia, 2009, p. 1) and is often compared to C.S. Lewis or Michael Polanyi (see Burson, 1996, p. 1). Studying Schaeffer enhances our understanding of Consumer Behavior in three ways.

First it is a fundamental characteristic of a significant group of consumers in the United States and gives us understanding of that group’s behavior. According to Hawkins, et al (2007, p. 181), 79% of Americans believe in God, more than 50% say religion is an important part of their lives and 36% say they regularly attend services. Secondly, religion provides insight about human behavior. Finally, marketing is itself a religion with a commercial ratio that parallels traditional religion.

Marketing is a religion in that it is a meaning making process. Marketing creates an identity and negotiates its meaning and therefore its image with a target audience (see Drewniany and Jewler, 2008, pp 36-45). Marketing breathes life into the image in the imagination of the audience through communications based on a model of self-concept and perception for the audience (see Hawkins, 2007, pp 434). Redemption for those of us who worship the marketing image is through consumption rather than faith.

Schaeffer’s article analyzes the essence of the meaning making process: self-concept and perception. He tells us that the failure of Rationalism and its attendant secular humanism should not be a concern for Christians, or by extrapolation to marketers, because the presuppositions, the fundamental assumptions, of Rationalism were flawed. He argues that we can know each other, or in other words, we can know an audience. He further, convincingly, asserts that meaningful communication is possible.

Christians formed early science with the perspective that a reasonable God created the universe so therefore our communication and interaction to understand it is reasonable as well. Do we find the same perspective in early marketing, advertising and consumer behavior? According to Twitchell (1996, p. 36), there is what he calls a preponderance of “evangelical con artists” in the formation of modern marketing. He lists a dozen of the leading apostles of the then new science who were Christian preachers or sons and daughters of preachers, some founding agencies that continue to dominate today. One luminary is Helen Lansdowne.

She was the daughter of a Presbyterian minister and she studied three years at Princeton Theological before devoting herself to advertising (Twitchell, 1996, p. 33). Wikipedia (2009a, p. 1) notes that while Stanley Resor was the executive during the rise to prominence of J. Walter Thompson, Helen Lansdowne was “the creative genius behind JWT's ad campaigns.”

Pope (2003, p. 8) relates that Lansdowne’s first innovation was to advertise to the consumer’s concerns rather than about a product’s qualities. Based on her consumer findings, (p. 9) she developed the catch phrase “A Skin You Love to Touch” that she added to “gauzily romantic paintings of elegant young ladies, happily receiving the admiring attention of dashing young gentlemen.” This was not the life situation for most of the audience but she had found it to be their aspiration.

She was also the first to use sex appeal in advertising.

Schaeffer’s argument is important, postmodern despair is not any more correct than failed Rationalism. Reason can be applied to our endeavors, rather than resigning ourselves to the overwhelming effect of randomness. The consumer behavior model initiated by bible thumpers has worked and is still in use, much enhanced today by the application of reason from both academia and practice.

The self-concept of an audience can be discovered sufficiently. Meaningful communications can be made. This requires research but there should be optimism it will succeed. Hawkins, et al (2007, p. 434), like Schaeffer, divide self-concept into inner and outer spheres, they designate as the private self and the social self. They further categorize self-concept and establish relationships with it and life-styles (p. 441). This implicitly reaffirms Schaeffer’s point that although Rationalism failed as a basis to explain such actions, Christian epistemology does support the concepts of categories, self-concept, and associations between subject and the world that can be communicated.

Another area of consumer behavior that Schaeffer’s article can illuminate is an understanding of the 79% of the American public that is Christian (see Hawkins, 2007, p. 181). Hawkins, et al go on to say (p. 183) that Catholics and Protestants represent a significant subculture in the United States. They also note (p. 84) that Christians tend to be more conservative in beliefs and are active in action against non-Christian proposals such as liquor, gambling, pornography and other marketing activities. This is consistent with the activism promoted by Schaeffer, especially his later work A Christian Manifesto.

This has resulted in actions by some Christians such as boycotts. One such boycott (see Hawkins, 2007, p. 184) is against Disney. This was not only because of Disney’s support for gay and lesbian life-styles but also for a continuing practice of sexual messaging. In addition to Hawkins, et al, see Vitigliano (1997, pp 1-2), Tucker (2008, p. 1), and Anomalies Unlimited (2005, p. 1). Representative is the penis subliminal messaging in the Little Mermaid.

This caused concern, as did Disney’s misrepresentations about the relationship with the artist who admitted doing this in other work for Disney as well. It illustrates the extent some Christians pursue a company once it becomes part of their activated consciousness.

Implications for Consumer Behavior of Schaeffer’s Work
Schaeffer emphasizes the vital importance of imagination in the experience of human beings. The advertising consultant Roy Williams (2001, pp 20-1) suggests that reality begins with imagination, quoting the master philosopher Henri Poincare. Here Williams suggests that imagination becomes reality when we put energy behind it. He goes on (p. 68) to say that powerful marketing communications with the consumer begin by first engaging their imagination, “and take it where you will.” When reviewing the work of Dr. Jorge Martin de Oliveria, Williams (p. 18) extends Oliveria’s findings to marketing communications by asserting that the central aspect of all efforts in human persuasion is “the fact that people can only do what they have first imagined.”

WALLACE SAYS THAT CREATIVITY IS MOTIVATED BY THE NEED TO REDUCE THE DISONACE BETWEEN IMAGINATION AND REALITY.

A prominent example of imagination in marketing and consumer influence was by one of the most extraordinary persons of the 20th century, Greta Garbo. She captured the imagination of women in the 20s and 30s and is now considered the first new woman by feminists (see Fischer, 2001, p. 90). Both the style of her screen persona and the facts of her personal life inflamed the imaginations of her audience, primarily women. I have seen most of her movies and there is a theme in them all, a triangle – she is married to an older, overbearing man and having an affair with a younger man (see for example Vieira, 2005, p. 8). When discovered in the act, she is neither embarrassed nor repentant but instead is contemptuous, weary or angry with her older man. Conveniently for her character and to the relief of the audience, he is killed or dies off, leaving her to her virile suitor. She played her characters as women with mastery over their own image.

In her personal life, after her first films proved extremely popular and profitable, she challenged the MGM power structure. She ignored studio dictates, refused to participate in staged publicity and premiers, did not wear traditional foundational garments beneath her clothes, and was in general insubordinate, all of which created a growing tension. It reached the tipping point when she demanded seven times her salary to become the highest paid professional in the business and refused to do the film Women Love Diamonds because she thought it foolish (see Paris, 1994, pp127-8).

MGM finally detonated, finding her in breach of contract, and issued her a cease and desist letter. She went over their heads to Loews Inc., the parent company, and focused on the factual errors in the letter (see Vieira, 2005, pp 45-8). It was also observed that had MGM listened to her they would not have lost $30,000 with Women Love Diamonds (MGM went on with it using a different actress). Loews agreed, and MGM was forced to capitulate to the 21-year-old girl. The humiliation of the best brains in a place like MGM rocked Hollywood (see Paris, 1994, pp 129-30). She was given the salary and creative license and for the next decade produced a series of extremely profitable films.

In addition to her mastery of the moviegoers’ imagination, her own imagination played an important role in her success. Paris (1993, p. 9) quotes her reflecting back on her life alone, “Even as a tiny girl I preferred being alone….I could give my imagination free rein and live in a world of lovely dreams.” He also reports (p. 19) that she received intense religious training from her Lutheran church when young and later in life worked at converting to Catholicism.

Not one of my textbooks in the WVU IMC program has an index topic of imagination. Of course, I did find some by practioners such as Williams cited above. This seems to be an oversight in current academic thinking about consumer behavior. Imagination is a critical aspect of people. People of Garbo’s stature have used the imagination of their audience to create a world that could be but isn’t. Imagination is fertile ground for an aspiration that people may not have thought of or considered. Marketing that creates an imaginary world that engages the imagination of the consumer can also have the towering success that someone like Garbo achieved.

Another implication is Schaeffer’s reference to Chomsky’s Basic Grammar categories to make a point. After an exhaustive literature search on it, I found only one article not imbued with extensive mathematical symbolism, Talmy’s The Cognitive Culture System.
Talmy (1995, p 4) says there may be a correlation between Chomsky’s linguistic categories and the universals of cultural structure that Murdock reported in 1966. Murdock found the following seventy-three cultural categories in every culture:

age-grading, athletic sports, bodily adornment, calendar, cleanliness training, community organization, cooking, cooperative labor, cosmology, courtship, dancing, decorative art, divination, division of labor, dream interpretation, education, eschatology, ethics, ethnobotany, etiquette, faith healing, family, feasting, fire-making, folklore, food taboos, funeral rites, games, gestures, gift-giving, government, greetings, hair-styles, hospitality, housing, hygiene, incest taboos, inheritance rules, joking, kin groups, kinship nomenclature, language, law, luck superstitions, magic, marriage, meal times, medicine, modesty concerning natural functions, mourning, music, mythology, numerals, obstetrics, penal sanctions, personal names, population policy, postnatal care, pregnancy usages, property rights, propitiation of supernatural beings, puberty customs, religious ritual, residence rules, sexual restrictions, soul concepts, status differentiation, surgery, tool making, trade visiting, weaning, weather control.

I think this is the start of a useful taxonomy to organize our understanding of a culture, especially differences. I am not suggesting that cultures are the same in these categories as far as marketing communications is concerned. I do suggest that these seventy-three common categories would be a way of organizing culturally relevant information.

A less mathematic, more up-to-date and more actionable study in this area could benefit consumer behavior. One area that comes to mind is avoiding embarrassing cross-cultural marketing mistakes. As examples, three of the cultural cognitive categories are mourning, numerals, and athletics. The category mourning would store the aspects of mourning in different cultures, aspects such as symbolic colors, white is Asia, black in the west, and brown in India; also numerals - 13 bad luck in the U.S., and 4 is bad luck in Japan; as well as athletics - use local sports stars - Nike wasted years pushing American sports stars in Europe to no effect.

List of Figures
Figure 1 Francis Schaeffer, retrieved on April 11, 2009 from http://www.rationalpi.com/theshelter/

Figure 2 L’Abri Retreat, retrieved on April 11, 2009 from http://www.labri.org/swiss/photo.html

Figure 3 Jose Ortega y Gasset, retrieved on April 11, 2009 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset

Figure 4 Resor and Lansdowne, retrieved on April 11, 2009 from http://adage.com/century/people014.html

Figure 5 Woodbury Soap ad by Lansdowne, retrieved on April 11, 2009 from http://www.paperboynews.com/links.asp?catagory=4&sub_id=528

Figure 6 Disconcerting Disney Artwork, retrieved on April 11, 2009 from http://www.anomalies-unlimited.com/Disney/Mermaid.html

Figure 7 Greta Garbo in Mysterious Lady, digital rights owned by George Ray


(these images are incorporated according to the Fair Use provisions of the copyright laws for educational purpose)

References
Anomolies Unlimited (2005). Well, it does look like one. Retrieved on April 10, 2009 from http://www.anomalies-unlimited.com/Disney/Mermaid.html

Burson, Scott R. (Summer 1996). A Comparative Analysis of C. S. Lewis and Francis Schaeffer-The Most Influential Apologists of Our Time. Lamp-Post of the Southern California C. S. Lewis Society 1996 Summer; 20 (2): 4-29. Retrieved on April 5, 2009 from EBSCOHOST.

Clarkson, Frederick (1994). "Theocratic Dominionism Gains Influence". The Public Eye Magazine VIII (1 & 2). Retrieved on April 9, 2009 from http://www.publiceye.org/magazine/v08n1/chrisre2.html

Cochrane, Matthew (April 24, 2007). Book Review: A Christian Manifesto. Retrieved on April 9, 2009 from http://www.notconformedthoughts.com/displayone.cfm?docid=2857

Drewniany, B and J Jewler (2008). Creative Strategy in Advertising. Wadsworth.

Elliott, Hannah (November 20, 2006 ) Baylor prof says Francis Schaeffer returned to fundamentalist views. Associated Baptist Press. Retrieved on April 9, 2009 from http://www.abpnews.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1628&Itemid=119

Gelles, John (Oct 12, 2007). Ann Coulter's Ridiculous Claim that Jews Are Christians! Retrieved on April 10, 2009 from http://www.amazon.com/tag/politics/forum?_encoding=UTF8&cdForum=Fx1S3QSZRUL93V8&cdPage=6&cdThread=Tx2MR9D14ZDZGZA&cdShowEdit=Mx300RQENP9YDC7

Hamilton, Gregory W. (2007). A Review of “A Christian Manifesto” in the Light of Scriptural Revelation. Liberty Express journal. Retrieved on April 9, 2009 from http://www.nrla.com/article.php?id=29

Hawkins, Del, David Mothersbaugh and Roger Best (2007). Consumer Behavior. McGraw-Hill/Irwin.

Kaplan, Robert (2001). The Coming Anarchy. Vintage.

Olasky, Marvin (March 03, 2005). Francis Schaeffer's political legacy. TownHall.Com. Retrieved on April 9, 2009 from http://townhall.com/columnists/MarvinOlasky/2005/03/03/francis_schaeffers_political_legacy

Parkhurst, L.G. (2008). Francis and Edith Schaeffer. Retrieved on April 9, 2009 from http://labri.net/FAS/content/view/27/27/

Pope, Daniel (6/13/2003). Making Sense of Advertisements. George Mason University.
Retrieved on April 8, 2009 from http://historymatters.gmu.edu/mse/ads/ads.pdf )

Schaefer, Francis (January 1972). He is There and He is not Silent. Bibliotheca Sacra. Retrieved on April 2, 2009 from EBSCOHOST.

Spanos, William (4/22/2003 ). The Detective and The Boundary: Some Notes on PostModern Literary Imagination. State University of New York at Binghamton. Retrieved on April 7, 2009 from EBSCOHOST.

Taleb, Nassim Nickolas (2007). The Black Swan. Random House.

Talmy, Leonard (Jan 95). The cognitive culture system. Monist; Jan95, Vol. 78 Issue 1, p80, 35p. Retrieved on April 8, 2009 from EBSCOHOST.

Tucker, Maryanne (2008). Subliminal Messaging and The Disney Corporation. Retrieved on April 10, 2009 from http://www.ucs.mun.ca/~jporter/maryanne_web/index_files/Page766.htm

Twitchell, James (1996). AdCult USA. Columbia Press.

Vitagliano, Ed (1997). Why Boycott Disney? AFA Journal. Retrieved on April 10, 2009 from http://www.solargeneral.com/ja/disney/why_boycott_disney.htm

Wallace, AFC (1963). Culture and Personality. Random House.

Wikipedia (2009). Francis Schaeffer. Retrieved on April 7, 2009 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Schaeffer

Wikipedia (2009a). Stanley Resor. Retrieved on April 7, 2009 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanley_B._Resor

Whitehead, John W. (3/8/2007). Is the Christian Right a Fascist Movement? The Rutherford Institute. Retrieved on April 9, 2009 from http://www.rutherford.org/articles_db/commentary.asp?record_id=462

Williams, Roy (2001). Magical Worlds of the Wizard of Ads. Bard Press.

Everybody Got a Chevy

This Impala ad is taken from Source magazine. The company, Chevy and the model, Impala were the original lowriders so there is a cultural history in the brand. True, the cars today are different than they were 40 years ago but still history does provide that cultural connection. You can still see the old Impala low riders on the streets today. By employing Hip Hop artists, Chevy reestablishes and reinforces that old connection; this is a ride for the hip.

The artists, Cadillac Don & J-Money did a series of videos on Chevy models. Here’s an example in a Chevy lowrider:

Peanut Butter and Jelly

The "Everybody Got a Chevy" series of videos features a different model in each. It ties in beautifully with print ads commissioned by Chevy employing the Hip Hop artists. The fact that the videos are not traditional video ads only reinforces the leverage in the print ads, since the music videos are now associated with the cars and they appear less mediated. I think we will see more and more non-traditional work federated with traditional.

Marketing Blunder or Urban Myth?

The cultural factors that can impact consumer behavior include language, demographics, values and nonverbal communications (see Hawkins, et al, 2007, p 40). A cultural faux pas can be an embarrassing experience for professional marketers. The best intentions can be rendered fallacious and instead of a positive projection of its brand, a company can appear like confused Martians.

Many gaffes are humorous and because of this there is also a set of urban myths that have been fabricated. To help avoid these, a literary search of myth busters should be done when reporting on marketing blunders. Here are three that are not urban myths you might find amusing.

Eat Elegancita
Hershey’s Elegancita candy bar is filled with caramel cream, cajeta in Mexican, and covered with chocolate. A popular ad campaign in Mexico was extended to other Latin American countries that spoke Spanish with unfortunate result. Cajeta in Argentina and Uruguay, who speak Castilian Spanish, is a slang term for a women’s vagina.

The singer Thalia tells all that she loves cajeta. (see Hoag, 2005, p 1). Hoag goes on to say “Such linguistic pitfalls, where a common word may be understood in a different way in different countries, happen with some frequency in Spanish.” A contributing factor: there are sixteen different dialects of Spanish (see Spanish Dialects and Varieties) .

This story withstands the scrutiny of an urban myth buster (see About Spanish). This guy does torpedo many other urban myths about marketing gaffes, including allegedly misusing the Spanish language. Nova Myth and Other Urban Myths.

Cultural Confusion at IKEA
Money Magazine (see Bad Translations) reports on IKEA, as does Brand Strategy (2003, p 1). The IKEA bunk bed for children is named Gutvik.

This is a homonym in German for Good Fxxx. Muy Bueno! Just the right name for a children’s product. The Urban Myth busters say that to be fair, the German words are Gut Fick, and the phonetics are slightly different. (see TV Tropes) However, they do cite IKEA for another misstep, marketing the Viren Toilet Brush (see IKEA Catalog) in Finland. The legendary runner Lasse Viren hails from Finland.



Hakkaa päälle, Pohjan poika!

I Could Not Love You More If I Loved Pepsodent Less
Dr. Monica Bolesta at the University of Maryland (2008, p 2) discusses how Pepsodent failed to launch its toothpaste in Southeast Asia because it emphasized the whitening aspects.
Pepsodent wrongly assumed the American cultural preference for white teeth was universal. In Southeast Asia, darkened teeth are considered more attractive and the locals even chew betel nuts to stain their teeth. The betel nut itself is considered a sign of love and longevity (see Betel Nut Smile).

The Culitvated Drink for Apes
Pavane is an upscale bitters distilled and marketed by Bacardi. According to both CNN Money (CNN Bad Translations) and Zouhali-Worrall (2008, p 1) in a Fortune Small Business article, product marketing became a cultural blunder in Germany. The German homonym Pavian means baboon.

References
Bolesta , Monica (August 22, 2008). Cross-Cultural Awareness: Avoiding Global Marketplace Missteps. Retrieved on April 3, 2009 from http://www.umuc.edu/departments/podcasts/podcasts_bep/content/shows/sh2008/transcript/Transcript_Diversity_Cultural_Awareness.pdf

Brand Strategy (May 2003). Global village idiot. Source:Brand Strategy; May2003 Issue 171, p39, 1/9p. Retrieved on EBSCOHOST.

Hawkins, Del, David Mothersbaugh and Roger Best (2007). Consumer Behavior. McGraw-Hill/Irwin.

Hoag , Christina (03/08/2005). The Miami Herald. Retrieved on April 3, 2009 from EBSCOHOST.

Zouhali-Worrall, Malika (Jul/Aug2008). Watch Your Language! Fortune Small Business. Retrieved on April 3, 2009 from EBSCOHOST.

Analysis of Rolex and Movado Watch Ads

Watches often do more than tell time. They can help a consumer define and project an image: sometimes for status and power, sometimes to convey style and cultivation.

High-end brands have such extraordinary demand these days; the wait list can be as long as two years to get a Jaeger-LeCoultre. Socha reports that Patek Philippe sold 28,000 watches and Jaeger-LeCoultre sold 50,000 in the Prestige category, while Rolex in the Luxury category sold 900,000 (Socha, 2007, 2008, p 1).

It is no longer rare for Prestige watches to sell in the high six figures. Business is booming and all Prestige manufacturers sell every watch they produce. Even the lower-tier Rolex line is benefiting from this trend. Murphy (2008, p 1) notes that sales were even better into 2008, and quotes that "A diamond watch doesn't sit in our shop more than a week."

The Prestige makers have established "heirloom quality."

Keller (2008, p 137) notes their mantra, "You never actually own a Patek Philippe. You merely take care of it for the next generation." So it is with Jaeger-LeCoultre. Here is their watch Queen Elizabeth received at her coronation. Not so with Rolex. Timex? A different kettle of fish altogether.

Rolex

Rolex watches have a divine heaviness. You would just not expect them to release a plastic Rolex. They reinforce this image of eminence with advertising and celebrity endorsements. Green (2004, p1) reports that Arnold Palmer was interviewed on playing his 50th Masters and, of course, endorsed Rolex. What’s more, Rolex is the 7th largest magazine advertiser in the world. Keller (p 137) notes that "Rolex watches retain their value better than almost any other type of good." However, they have not been able to establish the "heirloom quality" of the top brands.

Keller (pp 133-7) finds that Rolex is among the most "recognized luxury brands in the world." However, Rolex is positioned between the Prestige producers and the next-tier producers and so they have established the lower-priced Tudor line as a "fighter-brand" to keep Tag-Hauer, Movado and Citizen from encroaching into their niche.

I present for your consideration the following ad in the November 2008 issue of Vogue (see Illustration One). First attribute: it’s a two page ad for 30 words of text. This makes a statement; Rolex is an eminent player, worthy of your attention. The alluring model with classic features is the 77-year-old Carmen Dell'Orefice (see Rumbold, 2008 for a two page biography), according to Kathy (2008, p 1). Her ageless beauty underscores the timeless value of the Rolex she is wearing. The redundant headline reads, “Class is Forever”, but we have already gotten the message. Rolex wants to break into the heirloom niche so it can obtain high figures like the Prestige brands.

The body copy has important words – royal, diamond adorned, Stingray leather, and Black Sapphire. If there was reservation before, it is now dispelled: this is a watch like no other, made for royalty from only the rarest materials. It uniquely enhances your image. This professional ad will certainly appeal to the following VALS Segments: Innovators, Achievers and Strivers.

To Innovators, the beauty and class of Rolex is a valuable extension of their self. It reflects (see Hawkins, 2007, p 447), “a cultivated taste for the finer things in life.” To Achievers, the imminence of the Rolex brand appeals to their needs for (see Hawkins, p 448) “established, prestige products and services that demonstrate success to their peers.” Finally, Strivers can emulate the wealthy with a Rolex but they may end up with a Tudor model, the fighter-brand – cheap enough to compete with Citizens.

Illustration One (left page): Rolex, “Classic is Forever” Ad

Illustration One (right page): Rolex “Class is Forever” Ad

Movado and African Americans

Hawkins, et al (2007, p 167) say that “not all messages targeted at African Americans need to differ significantly from those targeted at other groups.” They qualify this rule with the caveat that incorporating black actors, models or spokespersons in the ad is important. A key segment in this audience is what Hawkins, et al call (p 164) “market leaders.” This group sees brands as communicating their unique self-image.

The Movado ad is also two pages, presenting prestige through this eminent use of space and disregard for cost. The two pages permit a flattering photograph of the attractive black actress Kerry Washington and the Movado watch as well. The body copy tells us about the acclaimed actress, and that the watch is available at fine jewelry stores. The impression is this watch is not a mass production pop-out that anyone can own. Noteworthy in the photo of the watch is the diamond studding, the gold accessorizing and the header “The Art of Design.”

The ad does not offer extensive body copy. Jérôme Lambert the CEO of Jaeger-LeCoultre sums up the advantage for this minimalism towards high-end audiences (see Lechevalier, 2009, p 1):

“The products are the real brand ambassadors; that’s our basic message. They have so much to say, and communication is a tool that loses so much of its efficiency when you overlay too many messages.”

The audience here, I think, is the VALS: Innovator segment. Image is important to them (see Hawkins, p 446-7). Brands act as an extension of self, and an expression of cultivated taste, and independence.

Many Innovators are emerging leaders. Kerry Washington is a good choice for the ad because she is an emerging film star (see Wikipedia, 2009, p1) with performances of note in Last King of Scotland and Ray Charles.

Zinkum and Hong (1991, p 352) conclude that advertising which fits with a person’s ideal self obtains a more favorable attitude toward the brand than if the had been more consistent with their actual self-concept. The Movado ad targets African-American women who are VALS Innovators and have affinity with Kerry Washington's attractive and successful image. One thing to help them establish their ideal is the Movado Esperanza watch, one that becomes an “extension of their personality” (see Hawkins, 2007, p 447).

Illustration Two (left page): Movado and African Americans

Illustration Two (right page): Movado and African Americans

References
Green, Barbara (6/16/2004). Rolex loyalist Arnold Palmer plays 50th Masters Tournament. National Jeweler;Vol. 98 Issue 12. Retrieved on March 30, 2009 from EBSCOHOST.

Hawkins, Del, David Mothersbaugh and Roger Best (2007). Consumer Behavior. McGraw-Hill/Irwin.

Kathy (November 11, 2008).Rolex "Class is Forever" attention-grabbing ad. Retrieved on March 30, 2009 from http://boomermarketingnews.blogspot.com/2008/11/rolex-class-is-forever-ad-mixed-reviews.html

Keller, K (2008), Strategic Brand Management. Pearson/Prentice-Hall.

Lechevalier, Brice (2009). GMT. Retrieved on April 1, 2009 from http://www.gmtmag.com/en/11_int_lambert_lecoultre.php

Murphy, Robert (4/14/2008) FAST TIMES IN WATCHES: FIRMS SEE BOOM FOR UBER-LUXURY STYLES. Women's Wear Daily. Retrieved on March 30, 2009 from EBSCOHOST.

Rumbold, Judy (3:54PM GMT 11 Jan 2008) Carmen Dell'Orefice: eternal grace. The Telegraph. Retrieved on April 1, 2009 from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/fashion/fashionpicturegalleries/3364006/Carmen-DellOrefice-eternal-grace.html

Socha, Miles, (7/30/2007). Demand Soars for Six-Figure Watches. Women's Wear Daily. Retrieved on March 30, 2009 from EBSCOHOST.

Univ. of S. Miss (Fall 2007). The VALS Segment Profiles. Retrieved on March 30, 2009 from http://ocean.otr.usm.edu/~w481504/kfj/mcj231vals.html

Wikipedia (2009). Kerry Washington. Retrieved on April 1, 2009 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerry_Washington

Zinkhan, George M. and Jae W. Hong (1991). Self Concept and Advertising Effectiveness: A Conceptual Mode! of Congruency,Conspicuousness, and Response Mode. Advances in Consumer Research. Retrieved on April 1, 2009 from WVU IMC 612 Week 3 readings.

Applying Kracauer to Consumer Behavior

Literature and art are modes of communication that provide a framework for understanding marketing communications and its influence on consumer behavior. Siegfried Kracauer was a cultural analyst and member of the applied social sciences group at Columbia University. His work laid the foundation for modern film criticism and he is the author of several works including Theory of Film: The Redemption of Physical Reality.

One of his foundation essays was on photography. First published in October 1927 in the Frankfurter Zeitung, Kracauer considered Photography to be one of his more important works. As editor, he also published the works of Adorno, Horkheimer, Bloch and Benjamin, the architects of what became known as the Frankfurter School. The University of Chicago republished the Thomas Levin translation of Photography in 1993 in its journal Critical Inquiry.

A summary of his article Photography can be found in this earlier posting. Photography is an analysis by one of the most powerful minds of 20th century sociology and film criticism. Most of the precepts it presents are now part of consumer behavior as well as modern film. Moreover, it is part of his larger body of work that is a framework for understanding groups and cultures and tools for discovering their nature.

Kracauer had a PhD in Architecture with significant training in sociology. To supplement his penetrating fusion of the two, he references classical figures such as Aristotle and Goethe among others. The work has been peer reviewed by three generations and has stood the test of time. It is still considered relevant enough to be published in a recent University of Chicago journal.

Several seminal points are made in the article. Visual communication is an art that requires care to eliminate clutter, and establish meaningful associations between the elements that survive the purge. This cannot be done mechanically.

A second point is that photographs do not represent reality. Neither does memory for that matter, because it is the association of what is in activated consciousness. This in turn permits irreality to be created in a subject or consumer. For example, Hawkins, et al (2007, p 326) report on a study that showed subjects presented with imagery were able to recall a childhood event of being at Disneyland and seeing Walt shake hands with Bugs Bunny, which is an impossibility.

A third point is that the meaning conveyed by a photograph is generally incomplete and may be inadequate depending on the skill of the artist. These points are incorporated into consumer behavior already and form the basis for work with conditioning, consumer inferences, memory interference, and memory’s role in learning.

Two final points are not widely applied to consumer behavior but should be. The fourth point is observing the quotidian aspects of the group or culture is the best way to understand the motives and attitudes of its members. The fifth point is that timeless work does not attempt to be contemporary.

How Kracauer Enriches our Understanding of Consumer Behavior
On photographs, Hawkins, et al (2007, p 305) tell us that the impact of visual images on consumers and their inferences from communications with visual images is becoming increasingly important. Page (2006, p 94) makes the more bold assertion that the concept of an image, and the connection of the elements in that image to each other and to the concept is the “fundamental action within an advertisement.” This being so, we should expect Kracauer’s insights into photography to have a reflection in current consumer behavior body of knowledge. They do.

First, photographs do not represent reality, and for that matter neither does memory, as Kracauer observed. Trachenberg (2008, p 113) demolishes the notion that photography represents reality. He says

“Today that simple idea of a light-based transparent nexus between photograph and a determinate past is undergoing radical reappraisal. The digital revolution, as probably everybody on earth now realizes, has eroded the old confidence in that transparency.”

Hawkins, et al say (p 305) that “Until recently, pictures in ads were thought to convey reality.” This has changed and now instead “They supply meaning.” Hawkins, et al (2007, p 282) provide support for the debility of memory as well. They argue that consumer awareness and attention are highly selective, and their interpretation is a highly subjective process. They offer this conclusion: “Thus reality and consumer perceptions of reality are quite often different.” They go on to say (p 328) that memory links fade over time.

Has there been a re-discovery of Aristotle’s Law of Contiguity, the idea of proximity begetting association? Hawkins, et al (p 301) assert that stimuli positioned close together are perceived as belonging to the same category. Page (2006, p 95) makes the next connection. She cites research on Pavlovian conditioning (a.k.a. Classical) that there is also a transfer of meaning with such associations.

Kracauer argues that a series of different photographs can influence the perception of each other through the overall context they create. The modern consumer behaviorists, Hawkins, et al (pp 299-300) explain the nature of such contextual cues. This can be other pictures on the same page in a magazine or the programming surrounding a commercial on TV.

As we might expect, the artistic assignment of meaning is widely recognized and applied. Its fallibility well discussed. Kracauer noted that composition according to a theme is what separates photographic art from mechanical and meaningless photography. Hawkins, et al (p 300) comment on the need to organize stimuli to help consumers react to and interpret our communications with them.

They go on (p 292) to insist that all good advertising must have a clear visual point of reference. They affirm the artistic focus recommended by Kracauer and declare it fundamental to advertising communications (p 290): “Any factor that draws attention to itself and away from the brand and its selling points has to be used with caution.”

Page (p 95) recommends a process she calls framing. Her frames constitute “principles of selection, emphasis, and presentation that organize the social construction of reality.” This is the elimination of non-message elements through emphasizing a meaning to organize our communication.

Analytical Trade-off in Kracauer's Approach
The great social psychologist, Karl Weick evaluated behavioral research according to “three inevitable tradeoffs:” the simplicity, accuracy and generality of the results (1979, pp 35-40). The first tradeoff is typical of activities mimicking the natural sciences, the attempt to be general and accurate while sacrificing simplicity. The second tradeoff, the case study approach, is accurate and simple but sacrifices generality. Finally there is the approach used by Kracauer, thought experiments (considered a valid form of inquiry: see Weick, 1979, p 38) as well as aphorisms from his observations and analysis. These are general and simple at the expense of accuracy. The trade-off Kracuaer chose should be kept in mind in reading any of his works.

Implications for Consumer Behavior of Kracauer’s Work
First, the behavioral sciences are at risk with their overreliance on statistical research methodology. Subject pretense is activated through participation in such research. Neumeier (2006, pp 110-11) cautions that such research is susceptible to the Hawthorne effect. He describes this as the penchant for people to act differently when they know they are under observation or being measured. Kracauer asserted that the everyday social activities of a group or its unembellished enactments like its literature and art reveal its nature without mediation and are better evidence for understanding its essence than its own pronouncements or the application of formal research techniques.

Wilson and Ogden (2004, pp 52-60 ) report on case studies of catastrophic failure in marketing campaigns based on statistical surveys, including New Coke. They present the following summary opinion with several supporting citations (p 30):
"Industry and academic opinion is that opinion surveys that measure behavior and predict behavior in isolation from the group are inherently flawed. Unless the measuring device is carefully designed and implemented, it may not measure the most salient opinion and the results may be misleading, causing costly strategic errors."

Taleb (2007, pp 229-247) provides further explanation and criticism (p 229 and following): “The Bell Curve, that great intellectual fraud.” Statistical distributions such as the Bell Curve are based on the assumption that the underlying population is non-scalable. In other words, as you leave the mean, not only is the count less, but that it is increasingly less. This is not a true attribute of all the populations where behavioral scientists are applying statistical surveys in a wooden and perfunctory manner.

A second and related implication is that the consumer research reaction to issues with mathematical surveys is to introduce “visual ethnography.” Brace-Govan (2007, p 735) says “visual ethnography offers marketers opportunities to gather appealing and pertinent data.” In view of Kracauer’s reservations, and his preeminence in the field of the visual arts, another and critical look must be made into the use of visual ethnography and interpretations based on it. Photographs do not represent reality.

A third implication is a view in the Humanities that the emotions and attitudes of a people can be found in their literature, music and art well before it is obvious to journalists or social scientists (see Kaplan, 2001, p 158). This is because the future lies in the uncomfortable and sensitive feelings of the present that cannot be expressed in a presentable narrative because it would contradict conventional wisdom. However, they can be expressed as a work of fiction or art whose popularity is an indicator of these transforming undercurrents. Review of art and literature is the approach recommended by Kracauer. This is also the viewpoint of the anthropologist, Wallace (1963, pp 101-3)

This can aid the discovery of latent motives in a culture or group. Such unstated motives are often driving forces in a culture but unlike manifest motives, are not directly presented (see Hawkins, 2007, p 375). Instead, indirect appeals through artwork are made. Latent motives according to Hawkins can be cracked with sophisticated analytical techniques, but an implication from the review of the Kracauer article is they can be discovered through a literature review also.



References
Brace-Goban, Jan (August 4, 2007). Participant photography in visual ethnography. International Journal of Market Research. Retrieved on March 26, 2009 from EBSCOHOST.

Hawkins, Del, David Mothersbaugh and Roger Best (2007). Consumer Behavior. McGraw-Hill/Irwin.

Holbrook, Morris (June 1987). What Is Consumer Research?. Journal of Consumer Research. Retrieved from WVU IMC 612 Week 2 Readings on March 21, 2009.

Kaplan, Robert (2001). The Coming Anarchy. Vintage.

Kracauer, S and T Levin (1993). Photography. Critical Inquiry, Vol. 19, No. 3 (Spring, 1993), pp. 421-436. The University of Chicago Press. Retrieved from JSTOR at
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1343959 on March 2009. (If you do not have a JSTOR account, I can email you the article).

Lewis, Charles (1998). Advertising Photography. History of the Mass Media in the United States: An Encyclopedia. Retrieved on March 23, 2009 from EBSCOHOST.

Neumeier, Marty (2006). The Brand Gap. New Riders.

Page, Janis (Spring 2006). Myth & Photography in Advertising. Visual Communications Quarterly. Retrieved on March 23, 2009 from EBSCOHOST.

Taleb, Nassim Nickolas (2007). The Black Swan. Random House.

Trachenberg, Alan (Spring 2008). Through a Glass Darkly. Social Research. Retrieved on March 23, 2009 from EBSCOHOST.

Wallace, AFC (1963). Culture and Personality. Random House.
Wilson, L. and Ogden, J. (2004). Strategic Communications Planning For Effective Public Relations and Marketing, 4th Ed. Kendall/Hunt Publishing

Fear Appeal in Advertising

LaTour et al (1996, p 2) say a fear appeal is a “psychoactive” ad that highlights an aspect of our “suboptimal lifestyles.” Their study shows a positive correlation between fear appeal and audience attitude towards an ad, and also that there are no ethical issues (p 6). They use (p 8) “deodorant failure” advertisements as an example of how fear appelas can be helpful communication.

Hawkins, et al (p 416) say that fear appeals use the threat of unpleasant consequences if a behavior is not altered. They single out bad breath. I am going to Platonify and say plaque falls into the same category of unpleasantness. Fear reduction is an effective agent to change attitudes, according to Hawkins, et al (2007, p 386, 408).

Several theories are in play, including the Theory of Reasoned Action (see Hawkins, et al, 2007, p 404). According to TRA, normative social beliefs are a major determinant in an individual about the appropriateness of a behavior. Social beliefs about bad breath, germs and plaque are leveraged in the Listerine ads. According to Gire (2003, p 1), the man who created Listerine, Gerald Lambert also developed the word "halitosis" to provide an advertising basis for discouraging bad breath.

With Listerine a consistent fear attribute is germs. Below is a Listerine ad from 1969. (click on image to enlarge)

And the following from 2009.

In both decades it is in the body copy. The headline further informs us of the manifest consequence of following a suboptimal lifestyle: back then we would have bad breath, today plaque. In both decades, the ads are what LaTour, et al (p 3) would characterize as “mild.”

Another theory is the Elaboration Likelihood Model (see Hawkins, p 409-10). It lines-up two consumer approaches to processing advertisements. One, central route processing is very cognitive and involves extensive information exchange between consumer and marketer. The other, peripheral processing uses more emotional cues and little or no cognitive processing.

In their paper "The Elaboration Likelihood Model of Persuasion", Cacioppo and Petty (1986, pp 1-2) clarify that they do not propose two mutually exclusive and exhaustive types but that central and peripheral represent positions on a continuous dimension ranging from high to low elaboration. I believe that along the elaboration continuum, the Listerine ads are on the peripheral side of the mean.

In the 1969 ad and also in the interesting TV commercial below, I think Listerine was trying a change belief tactic (see Hawkins, 2007, p 406) regarding the taste. They change the belief about the pungent taste of the product from bad to good, reasoning it would not be an effective germ fighter otherwise.

Here is an interesting look back to Morgan Freeman’s start in showbiz – he did TV commercials before movies. He is in a Listerine ad, explaining why the bad taste is good: Early Freeman Today, dealing with the taste is apparently not a need, or they don’t want to raise a red flag themselves about it.

Is it all ethical? Hawkins, et al (p 416) cite ethical concerns about "fear appeals based on social anxieties about bad breath...." LaTour, et al (1996, p 7) found no one in their studies considered fear appeals unethical. They even go so far to say such advertising can be helpful communications (p 8), and give as an example - deodorant failure, similar to bad breath. The Listerine ads, to me, fall on the LaTour side of the line and I do not think them unethical.

References
Cacioppo, John and Richard Petty (1986.) The Elaboration Likelihood Model of Persuasion. Retrieved on March 28, 2009 from the EBSCOHost database.

Gire, JT (2/10/2003). Attitudes & Attitude Change: Influencing Thoughts and Feelings. Retrieved on March 28, 2009 from http://academics.vmi.edu/psy/jg/chpt7-attitudes.htm

Hawkins, Del, David Mothersbaugh and Roger Best (2007). Consumer Behavior. McGraw-Hill/Irwin.

LaTour, M, R Snipes and S Bliss (03/01/1996). Don’t be afraid to use fear appeals: an experimental study. Journal of Advertising Research.

Chocolate, sometimes nothing else will do.

My Grandmother used to tell me that there’s no such thing as bad booze. I feel the same way about chocolate. There hardly seems a need to use advertising and conditioning for an obsession and so fetching a delight. Nevertheless, the major chocolate manufacturers and retailers use a combination of both classical conditioning and operant conditioning, but mostly classical.

Classical
Classical conditioning is the association of chocolate with an appealing stimulus. Hawkins, et al (2007, p 331) inform us that music, holidays and popular personalities are often paired in commercials with chocolate as part of classical conditioning. With chocolate, there is usually an undertone of romance.

Here is a Nestle’s :30 second spot on Youtube with many elements of classical conditioning. An ecstatic cellist. A woman, melting and open. How beautiful she is too. Enchanting music. Nestle's Alpine TV Spot

Latent romance in the popular commercial touched our need for objectification (see Hawkins, 2007, p 367) by having us view the behaviors of “others and [draw] inferences as to what one feels and thinks.” Showing affection in interpersonal relationships can also help satisfy our need for affiliation (p 371).

There is a dark side to chocolate too, an unstated sexual desire. Unstated motives are often driving forces in our culture but unlike manifest motives, are not directly presented (p 375). Instead, indirect appeals through artwork are made.

Hawkins, et al (2007, p 386) further report that “repeated exposure to positive-emotion-eliciting ads may increase brand preference through classical conditioning.” What is an example of such an emotion – they tell us: love. The 1989 commercial above was actually the apex of a multi-year campaign that started in 1986. Here is the Adam ad, notice the Maxfield Parrish theme (this one is a little louder): 1986 Nestle's TV Spot

Nestlé’s does not have a lock on chocolate advertising though. For their part Hershey’s follows suit with a more recent and similar Special Dark :15 spot (much louder): Hershey's :15 Spot

Here Hershey’s employs gold and copper colors to convey richness in the affective interpretation by the consumer, to supplement the same unconditioned stimuli we saw in Nestlé’s. Hawkins, et al (2007 , p 299) give a print ad example with a similar gold and copper color combination for a Godiva chocolate ad, but Hershey’s even gives us the words to associate with the product.

Hershey’s Kisses added a popular personality to the music, Thalia as she covered the Shirelle’s hit It’s in His Kiss: Thalia TV Spot

They also changed colors for the Christmas season and bell-rang a popular carol: Hershey's for the Holidays . Hawkins et al (p 332) use Christmas music as an example of eliciting the emotional responses characteristic of classical conditioning.

Hawkins and crew give other interesting examples of classical conditioning for chocolate candy (p 286): Reese’s Pieces product placement in the movie E.T. It was E.T.’s favorite food and its cinematic use in a natural way resulted in positive transfer to the product and sales jumped 6%.

In their Darwinian competition for attention, the chocolate makers are now exploring non-traditional venues. The response rate for advergames is between 16% and 45%. Additionally, customers spend an average of 25 minutes with our message. Blank (2001, ¶ 1) reports that Hershey’s Chocolate also experienced a phenomenal response rate with advergaming.

According to Ron (2002, ¶ 1), advergaming is a marketing device where the brand elements are an integral part of an online or computer game. Two academic studies have found that classical conditioning in advergaming produces most the most positive attitude (see Bailey, 2008, pp20-1 and Huang, 2005, p 1).

Operant Conditioning
Chocolate candy is a low involvement purchase. Duncan (2005, p 158) notes that conditioned learning is especially active in low involvement purchases. Gum and candy are the examples Duncan uses for low involvement products (p 140).

Operant conditioning works from the consequences of a purchase rather than through forming a positive stimulus for purchase. It rewards purchase “with positive outcomes,” according to Hawkins, et all (p 332) who also give an example of operant conditioning for chocolate candy. A free sample of chocolate in a candy shop resulted in a 25% higher purchase of chocolate. Tools of operant conditioning are free samples, discount coupons and sweepstakes (p 332). All are oriented to “secure an initial trial.”

Hershey’s used sweepstakes. Blank (2001, p 1) observes that the effective campaign used prizes ranging from Sony Play Stations, a one years supply of candy, a trip to Hershey’s Park, and daily prizes earned using the advergames – Reese’s Treasure Hunt and Reese’s Table Tennis. The sweepstakes was part of the advergame reported in classical conditioning.

Huang (2005, p 1) notes there is a secondary operant conditioning effect in advergaming, although the prime effect is from classical conditioning. Stokes, et al explain further (2008, p 9) “where reinforcement or punishment is used to promote specific behaviors,” advergames use operant conditioning to achieve desired behaviors.

Coupons and gift cards are standard fare also. See’s uses coupons as do the others, (See
See's Deals). Sweepstakes too (see See's Sweepstakes ).

References
Bailey, R (Summer 2008). TRAINED TO EAT: CHILDREN’S COGNITIVE AND
EMOTIONAL PROCESSING OF SNACK FOOD
ADVERGAMES. Univ. of Missouri. Retrieved on March 17, 2009 from http://edt.missouri.edu/Summer2008/Thesis/BaileyR-072308-T11745/research.pdf

Blank, C (August 6, 2001). Hershey's Online Push for Reese's Gets Sweet Response. Direct Marketing News. Retrieved on March 16, 2009
http://www.dmnews.com/Hershey39s-Online-Push-for-Reese39s-Gets-Sweet-Response/article/74093/

Hawkins, Del, David Mothersbaugh and Roger Best (2007). Consumer Behavior. McGraw-Hill/Irwin.

Huang, Y (August 7, 2005). The Application of Learning Theory to The Study of Advergaming. Retrieved on March 17, 2009 from http://etdncku.lib.ncku.edu.tw/ETD-db/ETD-search/view_etd?URN=etd-0807105-020544

Ron, S (June 27, 2002). Inject Some Fun and Games Into Advertising. Direct Marketing News. Retrieved on March 16, 2009at http://www.dmnews.com/Inject-Some-Fun-and-Games-Into-Advertising/article/77963/

Stokes, B, S Seggerman, and D Rejeski (9/28/2008). Digital Games and the Social Change Sector (For a Better World). Retrieved on March 18, 2009 from